Bioreduction of chromate in a syngas-based membrane biofilm reactor.

This study leveraged synthesis gas (syngas), a renewable resource attainable through the gasification of biowaste, to achieve efficient chromate removal from water. To enhance syngas transfer efficiency, a membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR) was employed. Long-term reactor operation showed a stable and high-level chromate removal efficiency > 95%, yielding harmless Cr(III) precipitates, as visualised by scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray analysis. Corresponding to the short hydraulic retention time of 0.25 days, a high chromate removal rate of 80 µmol/L/d was attained. In addition to chromate reduction, in situ production of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) by gas fermentation was observed. Three sets of in situ batch tests and two groups of ex situ batch tests jointly unravelled the mechanisms, showing that biological chromate reduction was primarily driven by VFAs produced from in situ syngas fermentation, whereas hydrogen originally present in the syngas played a minor role. 16 S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing has confirmed the enrichment of syngas-fermenting bacteria (such as Sporomusa), who performed in situ gas fermentation leading to the synthesis of VFAs, and organics-utilising bacteria (such as Aquitalea), who utilised VFAs to drive chromate reduction. These findings, combined with batch assays, elucidate the pathways orchestrating synergistic interactions between fermentative microbial cohorts and chromate-reducing microorganisms. The findings facilitate the development of cost-effective strategies for groundwater and drinking water remediation and present an alternative application scenario for syngas.

Fluorine materials scavenge excess carbon dioxide and promote Escherichia coli growth.

Fluorinated solvents have been used as oxygen carriers in closed microbial cultures to sustain aerobic conditions. However, the growth-promoting effects of fluorinated solvents remain unclear. Therefore, this study aimed to elucidate the mechanism by which fluorinated solvents promote microbial growth and to explore alternative materials that can be easily isolated after culture. Escherichia coli and HFE-7200, a fluorinated solvent, were used to explore factors other than oxygen released by fluorinated solvents that promote microbial growth. E. coli growth was promoted in gas-permeable cultures, and HFE-7200 alleviated medium acidification. Gas chromatography confirmed that HFE-7200 functioned as a scavenger of carbon dioxide produced by E. coli metabolism. Because fluorinated solvents can dissolve various gases, they could scavenge metabolically produced toxic gases from microbial cultures. Furthermore, using polytetrafluoroethylene, a solid fluorine material, results in enhanced bacterial growth. Such solid materials can be easily isolated and reused for microbial culture, suggesting their potential as valuable technologies in food production and biotechnology.

Nitrate-driven anaerobic oxidation of ethane and butane by bacteria.

The short-chain gaseous alkanes (ethane, propane, and butane; SCGAs) are important components of natural gas, yet their fate in environmental systems is poorly understood. Microbially mediated anaerobic oxidation of SCGAs coupled to nitrate reduction has been demonstrated for propane, but is yet to be shown for ethane or butane-despite being energetically feasible. Here we report two independent bacterial enrichments performing anaerobic ethane and butane oxidation, respectively, coupled to nitrate reduction to dinitrogen gas and ammonium. Isotopic 13C- and 15N-labelling experiments, mass and electron balance tests, and metabolite and meta-omics analyses collectively reveal that the recently described propane-oxidizing "Candidatus Alkanivorans nitratireducens" was also responsible for nitrate-dependent anaerobic oxidation of the SCGAs in both these enrichments. The complete genome of this species encodes alkylsuccinate synthase genes for the activation of ethane/butane via fumarate addition. Further substrate range tests confirm that "Ca. A. nitratireducens" is metabolically versatile, being able to degrade ethane, propane, and butane under anoxic conditions. Moreover, our study proves nitrate as an additional electron sink for ethane and butane in anaerobic environments, and for the first time demonstrates the use of the fumarate addition pathway in anaerobic ethane oxidation. These findings contribute to our understanding of microbial metabolism of SCGAs in anaerobic environments.

Probing efficient microbial CO2 utilisation through metabolic and process modelling.

Acetogenic gas fermentation is increasingly studied as a promising technology to upcycle carbon-rich waste gasses. Currently the product range is limited, and production yields, rates and titres for a number of interesting products do not allow for economically viable processes. By pairing process modelling and host-agnostic metabolic modelling, we compare fermentation conditions and various products to optimise the processes. The models were then used in a simulation of an industrial-scale bubble column reactor. We find that increased temperatures favour gas transfer rates, particularly for the valuable and limiting H2 , while furthermore predicting an optimal feed composition of 9:1 mol H2 to mol CO2 . Metabolically, the increased non-growth associated maintenance requirements of thermophiles favours the formation of catabolic products. To assess the expansion of the product portfolio beyond acetate, both a product volatility analysis and a metabolic pathway model were implemented. In-situ recovery of volatile products is shown to be within range for acetone but challenging due to the extensive evaporation of water, while the direct production of more valuable compounds by acetogens is metabolically unfavourable compared to acetate and ethanol. We discuss alternative approaches to overcome these challenges to utilise acetogenic CO2 fixation to produce a wider range of carbon negative chemicals.

Uncovering root compaction response mechanisms: new insights and opportunities.

Compaction disrupts soil structure, reducing root growth, nutrient and water uptake, gas exchange, and microbial growth. Root growth inhibition by soil compaction was originally thought to reflect the impact of mechanical impedance and reduced water availability. However, using a novel gas diffusion-based mechanism employing the hormone ethylene, recent research has revealed that plant roots sense soil compaction. Non-compacted soil features highly interconnected pore spaces that facilitate diffusion of gases such as ethylene which are released by root tips. In contrast, soil compaction stress disrupts the pore network, causing ethylene to accumulate around root tips and trigger growth arrest. Genetically disrupting ethylene signalling causes roots to become much less sensitive to compaction stress. Such new understanding about the molecular sensing mechanism and emerging root anatomical traits provides novel opportunities to develop crops resistant to soil compaction by targeting key genes and their signalling pathways. This expert view discusses these recent advances and the molecular mechanisms associated with root-soil compaction responses.

A versatile pumpless multi-channel fluidics system for maintenance and real-time functional assessment of tissue and cells.

To address the needs of the life sciences community and the pharmaceutical industry in pre-clinical drug development to both maintain and continuously assess tissue metabolism and function with simple and rapid systems, we improved on the initial BaroFuse to develop it into a fully functional, pumpless, scalable multi-channel fluidics instrument that continuously measures changes in oxygen consumption and other endpoints in response to test compounds. We and several other laboratories assessed it with a wide range of tissue types including retina, pancreatic islets, liver, and hypothalamus with both aqueous and gaseous test compounds. The setup time was less than an hour for all collaborating groups, and there was close agreement between data obtained from the different laboratories. This easy-to-use system reliably generates real-time metabolic and functional data from tissue and cells in response to test compounds that will address a critical need in basic and applied research.

Artificial Soil-Like Material Enhances CO2 Bio-Valorization into Chemicals in Gas Fermentation.

Gas fermentation offers a carbon-neutral route for producing industrial feedstocks using autotrophic microbes to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) in waste gases, such as industrial emissions and biogas, into valuable chemicals or biofuels. However, slow microbial metabolism owing to low gaseous solubility causes significant challenges in gas fermentation. Although chemical or genetic manipulations have been explored to improve gas fermentation, they are either nonsustainable or complex. Herein, an artificial soil-like material (SLM) inspired by natural soil was fabricated to improve the growth and metabolism ofCupriavidus necatorfor enhanced poly-ß-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) biosynthesis from CO2 and hydrogen (H2). Porous SLM comprises low-cost nanoclay, boehmite, and starch and serves as a biocarrier to facilitate the colonization of bacteria and delivery of CO2 to bacteria. With 3.0 g/L SLM addition, the solubility of CO2 in water increased by ∼4 times and biomass and PHB production boosted by 29 and 102%, respectively, in the 24 h culture. In addition, a positive modulation was observed in the metabolism of PHB biosynthesis. PHB biosynthesis-associated gene expression was found to be enhanced in response to the SLM addition. The concentrations of intermediates in the metabolic pathway of PHB biosynthesis, such as pyruvate and acetyl-CoA, as well as reducing energy (ATP and NADPH) significantly increased with SLM addition. SLM also demonstrated the merits of easy fabrication, high stability, recyclability, and plasticity, thereby indicating its considerable potential for large-scale application in gas fermentation.

The Significance of Lipids for the Absorption and Release of Oxygen in Biological Organisms.

A critically important step for the uptake and transport of oxygen (O2) in living organisms is the crossing of the phase boundary between gas (or water) and lipid/proteins in the cell. Classically, this transport across the phase boundary is explained as a transport by proteins or protein-based structures. In our contribution here, we want to show the significance of passive transport of O2 also (and in some cases probably predominantly) through lipids in many if not all aerobic organisms. In plants, the significance of lipids for gas exchange (absorption of CO2 and release of O2) is well recognized. The leaves of plants have a cuticle layer as the last film on both sides formed by polyesters and lipids. In animals, the skin has sebum as its last layer consisting of a mixture of neutral fatty esters, cholesterol and waxes which are also at the border between the cells of the body and the air. The last cellular layers of skin are not vascularized therefore their metabolism totally depends on this extravasal O2 absorption, which cannot be replenished by the bloodstream. The human body absorbs about 0.5% of O2 through the skin. In the brain, myelin, surrounding nerve cell axons and being formed by oligodendrocytes, is most probably also responsible for enabling O2 transport from the extracellular space to the cells (neurons). Myelin, being not vascularized and consisting of water, lipids and proteins, seems to absorb O2 in order to transport it to the nerve cell axon as well as to perform extramitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation inside the myelin structure around the axons (i.e., myelin synthesizes ATP) - similarly to the metabolic process occurring in concentric multilamellar structures of cyanobacteria. Another example is the gas transport in the lung where lipids play a crucial role in the surfactant ensuring incorporation of O2 in the alveoli where there are lamellar body and tubular myelin which form multilayered surface films at the air-membrane border of the alveolus. According to our view, the role played by lipids in the physical absorption of gases appears to be crucial to the existence of many, if not all, of the living aerobic species.

A photobioreactor for production of algae biomass from gaseous emissions of an animal house.

Sustainable approaches to circular economy in animal agriculture are still poorly developed. Here, we report an approach to reduce gaseous emissions of CO2 and NH3 from animal housing while simultaneously using them to produce value-added biomass. To this end, a cone-shaped, helical photobioreactor was developed that can be integrated into animal housing by being freely suspended, thereby combining a small footprint with a physically robust design. The photobioreactor was coupled with the exhaust air of a chicken house to allow continuous cultivation of a mixed culture of Arthrospira spec. (Spirulina). Continuous quantification of CO2 and NH3 concentration showed that the coupled algae reactor effectively purifies the exhaust air from the chicken house while producing algal biomass. Typical production rates of greater than 0.3 g/l*day dry mass were obtained, and continuous operation was possible for several weeks. Morphological, biochemical, and genomic characterization of Spirulina cultures yielded insights into the dynamics and metabolic processes of the microbial community. We anticipate that further optimization of this approach will provide new opportunities for the generation of value-added products from gaseous CO2 and NH3 waste emissions, linking resource-efficient production of microalgae with simultaneous sequestration of animal emissions. KEY POINTS: • Coupling a bioreactor with exhaust gases of chicken coop for production of biomass. • Spirulina mixed culture removes CO2 and NH3 from chicken house emissions. • High growth rates and biodiversity adaptation for nitrogen metabolism. Towards a sustainable circular economy in livestock farming. The functional coupling of a helical tube photobioreactor with exhaust air from a chicken house enabled the efficient cultivation of Spirulina microalgae while simultaneously sequestering the animals' CO2 and NH3 emissions.

Photosynthetic conversion of carbon dioxide from cement production to microalgae biomass.

Production of microalgae is a potential technology for capturing and recycling carbon dioxide from cement kiln emissions. In this study, a process of selecting a suitable strain that would effectively utilize carbon dioxide and generate biomass was investigated. A down-selection screening method was applied to 28 strains isolated from the area surrounding a commercial cement plant. In laboratory-scale (1 L) continuous-mode chemostats, observed productivity was > 0.9 g L-1 d-1 for most strains studied. Chlorella sorokiniana (strain SMC-14M) appeared to be the most tolerant to cement kiln gas emissions in situ, delivered under control of a pH-stat system, and was down-selected to further investigate growth and biomass production at large-scale (1000 L) cultivation. Results demonstrated little variability in lipid, crude protein, and carbohydrate composition throughout growth between kiln-gas grown algal biomass and biomass produced with laboratory grade CO2. The growth rate at which the maximum quantity of CO2 from the emissions is recycled also produced the maximum amount of the targeted biomass components to increase commercial value of the biomass. An accumulation of some heavy metals throughout its growth demonstrates the necessity to monitor the biomass cultivated with industrial flue gases and to carefully consider the potential applications for this biomass; despite its other attractive nutritional properties. KEY POINTS: • Studied high biomass producing algal strains grown on CO2 from cement flue gas. • Chlorella sorokiniana SMC-14M grew well at large scale, in situ on cement flue gas. • Demonstrated the resulting commercial potential of the cultured algal biomass.

An overview of oxygen transport in plants: diffusion and convection.

The movement of gases within plants is crucial for species that live in flood-prone areas with limited soil oxygen. These plants adapt to hypoxia/anoxia not by using oxygen more efficiently, but by ensuring a steady oxygen supply to their cells. Wetland plants typically form gas-filled spaces (aerenchyma) in their tissues, providing a low-resistance pathway for gas movement between shoots and roots, especially when the shoots are above water, and the roots are submerged. Oxygen movement in plant roots is mainly through diffusion. However, in certain species, such as emergent and floating-leaved plants, pressurized flows can also facilitate the movement of gases within their stems and rhizomes. Three types of pressurized (convective) flows have been identified: humidity-induced pressurization (positive pressure), thermal osmosis (positive pressure with air flow against the heat gradient), and venturi-induced suction (negative pressure) caused by wind passing over broken culms. A clear diel variation in pressurized flows exists, with higher pressures and flows during the day and negligible pressures and flows during the night. This article discusses some key aspects of these mechanisms for oxygen movement.

[Genetic modification of acetogens and optimization of fermentation process in C1-gas bioconversion].

The current linear economy model relies on fossil energy and increases CO2 emissions, which contributes to global warming and environmental pollution. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop and deploy technologies for carbon capture and utilization to establish a circular economy. The use of acetogens for C1-gas (CO and CO2) conversion is a promising technology due to high metabolic flexibility, product selectivity, and diversity of the products including chemicals and fuels. This review focuses on the physiological and metabolic mechanisms, genetic and metabolic engineering modifications, fermentation process optimization, and carbon atom economy in the process of C1-gas conversion by acetogens, with the aim to facilitate the industrial scale-up and carbon negative production through acetogen gas fermentation.

Spatio-temporal dynamics of the metabolome of climacteric fruit during ripening and post-harvest storage.

Fruit quality traits are determined to a large extent by their metabolome. The metabolite content of climacteric fruit changes drastically during ripening and post-harvest storage, and has been investigated extensively. However, the spatial distribution of metabolites and how it changes in time has received much less attention as fruit are usually considered as homogenous plant organs. Yet, spatio-temporal changes of starch, which is hydrolyzed during ripening, has been used for a long time as a ripening index. As vascular transport of water, and hence convective transport of metabolites, slows down in mature fruit and even stalls after detachment, spatio-temporal changes in their concentration are probably affected by diffusive transport of gaseous molecules that act as substrate (O2), inhibitor (CO2), or regulator (ethylene and NO) of the metabolic pathways that are active during climacteric ripening. In this review, we discuss such spatio-temporal changes of the metabolome and how they are affected by transport of metabolic gases and gaseous hormones. As there are currently no techniques available to measure the metabolite distribution repeatedly by non-destructive means, we introduce reaction-diffusion models as an in silico tool to compute it. We show how the different components of such a model can be integrated and used to better understand the role of spatio-temporal changes of the metabolome in ripening and post-harvest storage of climacteric fruit that is detached from the plant, and discuss future research needs.

Biological effects of inhaled crude oil vapor. III. Pulmonary inflammation, cytotoxicity, and gene expression profile.

OBJECTIVE: Workers may be exposed to vapors emitted from crude oil in upstream operations in the oil and gas industry. Although the toxicity of crude oil constituents has been studied, there are very few in vivo investigations designed to mimic crude oil vapor (COV) exposures that occur in these operations. The goal of the current investigation was to examine lung injury, inflammation, oxidant generation, and effects on the lung global gene expression profile following a whole-body acute or sub-chronic inhalation exposure to COV. MATERIALS AND METHODS: To conduct this investigation, rats were subjected to either a whole-body acute (6 hr) or a sub-chronic (28 d) inhalation exposure (6 hr/d × 4 d/wk × 4 wk) to COV (300 ppm; Macondo well surrogate oil). Control rats were exposed to filtered air. One and 28 d after acute exposure, and 1, 28, and 90 d following sub-chronic exposure, bronchoalveolar lavage was performed on the left lung to collect cells and fluid for analyses, the apical right lobe was preserved for histopathology, and the right cardiac and diaphragmatic lobes were processed for gene expression analyses. RESULTS: No exposure-related changes were identified in histopathology, cytotoxicity, or lavage cell profiles. Changes in lavage fluid cytokines indicative of inflammation, immune function, and endothelial function after sub-chronic exposure were limited and varied over time. Minimal gene expression changes were detected only at the 28 d post-exposure time interval in both the exposure groups. CONCLUSION: Taken together, the results from this exposure paradigm, including concentration, duration, and exposure chamber parameters, did not indicate significant and toxicologically relevant changes in markers of injury, oxidant generation, inflammation, and gene expression profile in the lung.

Phylogeny and Physiological Diversity of Cold-adapted Anaerobic Bacteria Isolated from Rice Field Soil in Japan.

Cold-adapted or psychrotrophic fermentative anaerobic bacteria were isolated from rice field soil in a temperate area in Japan using anaerobic enrichment cultures incubated at 5°C. Most isolates were obligately anaerobic, spore-forming rods and affiliated with different lineages of the genus Clostridium based on 16S rRNA gene sequences. The growth temperature ranges and physiological properties of three representative clostridial isolates (C5S7, C5S11T, and C5S18) were examined. Strain C5S7 grew at 0°C, but not at 20°C, and was identified as Clostridium estertheticum, a psychrophile isolated from spoiled, vacuum-packed, chilled meat (blown pack spoilage, BPS). Strain C5S7 produced butyrate, n-butanol, and abundant gases (H2 and CO2) as major fermentation products from the carbohydrates utilized. Strain C5S11T, which was recently described as Clostridium gelidum sp. nov., possessed psychrotrophic properties and grew at temperatures between 0 and 25°C. Strain C5S11T was saccharolytic, decomposed polysaccharides, such as inulin, pectin, and xylan, and produced acetate, butyrate, and gases. Strain C5S18 also grew at 0°C and the optimum growth temperature was 15°C. Strain C5S18 did not ferment carbohydrates and grew in a manner that was dependent on proteinaceous substrates. This strain was identified as the psychrotolerant species, Clostridium tagluense, originally isolated from a permafrost sample. Collectively, the present results indicate that psychrotrophic anaerobic bacteria with different physiological properties actively degrade organic matter in rice field soil, even in midwinter, in a cooperative manner using different substrates. Furthermore, different psychrotrophic species of the genus Clostridium with the ability to cause BPS inhabit cultivated soil in Japan.

Microbial Enrichment Techniques on Syngas and CO2 Targeting Production of Higher Acids and Alcohols.

(1) Background: Microbial conversion of gaseous molecules, such as CO2, CO and H2, to valuable compounds, has come to the forefront since the beginning of the 21st century due to increasing environmental concerns and the necessity to develop alternative technologies that contribute to a fast transition to a more sustainable era. Research efforts so far have focused on C1-C2 molecules, i.e., ethanol and methane, while interest in molecules with higher carbon atoms has also started to emerge. Research efforts have already started to pay off, and industrial installments on ethanol production from steel-mill off-gases as well as methane production from the CO2 generated in biogas plants are a reality. (2) Methodology: The present study addresses C4-C6 acids and butanol as target molecules and responds to how the inherent metabolic potential of mixed microbial consortia could be revealed and exploited based on the application of different enrichment methods (3) Results and Conclusions: In most of the enrichment series, the yield of C4-C6 acids was enhanced with supplementation of acetic acid and ethanol together with the gas substrates, resulting in a maximum of 43 and 68% (e-mol basis) for butyric and caproic acid, respectively. Butanol formation was also enhanced, to a lesser degree though and up to 9% (e-mol basis). Furthermore, the microbial community exhibited significant shifts depending on the enrichment conditions applied, implying that a more profound microbial analysis on the species level taxonomy combined with the development of minimal co-cultures could set the basis for discovering new microbial co-cultures and/or co-culturing schemes.

Thermodynamic and Kinetic Modeling Directs Pathway Optimization for Isopropanol Production in a Gas-Fermenting Bacterium.

Rational engineering of gas-fermenting bacteria for high yields of bioproducts is vital for a sustainable bioeconomy. It will allow the microbial chassis to renewably valorize natural resources from carbon oxides, hydrogen, and/or lignocellulosic feedstocks more efficiently. To date, rational design of gas-fermenting bacteria such as changing the expression levels of individual enzymes to obtain the desired pathway flux is challenging, because pathway design must follow a verifiable metabolic blueprint indicating where interventions should be executed. Based on recent advances in constraint-based thermodynamic and kinetic models, we identify key enzymes in the gas-fermenting acetogen Clostridium ljungdahlii that correlate with the production of isopropanol. To this extent, we integrated a metabolic model in comparison with proteomics measurements and quantified the uncertainty for a variety of pathway targets needed to improve the bioproduction of isopropanol. Based on in silico thermodynamic optimization, minimal protein requirement analysis, and ensemble modeling-based robustness analysis, we identified the top two significant flux control sites, i.e., acetoacetyl-coenzyme A (CoA) transferase (AACT) and acetoacetate decarboxylase (AADC), overexpression of which could lead to increased isopropanol production. Our predictions directed iterative pathway construction, which enabled a 2.8-fold increase in isopropanol production compared to the initial version. The engineered strain was further tested under gas-fermenting mixotrophic conditions, where more than 4 g/L isopropanol was produced when CO, CO2, and fructose were provided as the substrates. In a bioreactor environment sparging with CO, CO2, and H2 only, the strain produced 2.4 g/L isopropanol. Our work highlighted that the gas-fermenting chasses can be fine-tuned for high-yield bioproduction by directed and elaborative pathway engineering. IMPORTANCE Highly efficient bioproduction from gaseous substrates (e.g., hydrogen and carbon oxides) will require systematic optimization of the host microbes. To date, the rational redesign of gas-fermenting bacteria is still in its infancy, due in part to the lack of quantitative and precise metabolic knowledge that can direct strain engineering. Here, we provide a case study by engineering isopropanol production in gas-fermenting Clostridium ljungdahlii. We demonstrate that a modeling approach based on the thermodynamic and kinetic analysis at the pathway level can provide actionable insights into strain engineering for optimal bioproduction. This approach may pave the way for iterative microbe redesign for the conversion of renewable gaseous feedstocks.

Production of biofuels from C1 -gases with Clostridium and related bacteria-Recent advances.

Clostridium spp. are suitable for the bioconversion of C1 -gases (e.g., CO2 , CO and syngas) into different bioproducts. These products can be used as biofuels and are reviewed here, focusing on ethanol, butanol and hexanol, mainly. The production of higher alcohols (e.g., butanol and hexanol) has hardly been reviewed. Parameters affecting the optimization of the bioconversion process and bioreactor performance are addressed as well as the pathways involved in these bioconversions. New aspects, such as mixotrophy and sugar versus gas fermentation, are also reviewed. In addition, Clostridia can also produce higher alcohols from the integration of the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway and the reverse ß-oxidation pathway, which has also not yet been comprehensively reviewed. In the latter process, the acetogen uses the reducing power of CO/syngas to reduce C4 or C6 fatty acids, previously produced by a chain elongating microorganism (commonly Clostridium kluyveri), into the corresponding bioalcohol.

Transport Characteristics of Aquaporins.

Aquaporins (AQP) are a class of the integral membrane proteins. The main physiological function of AQPs is to facilitate the water transport across plasma membrane of cells. However, the transport of various kinds of small molecules by AQPs is an interesting topic. Studies using in vitro cell models have found that AQPs mediated transport of small molecules, including glycerol, urea, carbamides, polyols, purines, pyrimidines and monocarboxylates, and gases such as CO2, NO, NH3, H2O2 and O2, although the high intrinsic membrane permeabilities for these gases make aquaporin-facilitated transport not dominant in physiological mechanism. AQPs are also considered to transport silicon, antimonite, arsenite and some ions; however, most data about transport characteristics of AQPs are derived from in vitro experiments. The physiological significance of AQPs that are permeable to various small molecules is necessary to be determined by in vivo experiments. This chapter will provide information about the transport characteristics of AQPs.

Acetate augmentation boosts the ethanol production rate and specificity by Clostridium ljungdahlii during gas fermentation with pure carbon monoxide.

Recycling waste gases from industry is vital for the transition toward a circular economy. The model microbe Clostridium ljungdahlii reduces carbon from syngas and primarily produces acetate and ethanol. Here, a gas fermentation experiment is presented in chemostats with C. ljungdahlii and pure carbon monoxide (CO) as feedstock while entirely omitting yeast extract. A maximum ethanol production rate of 0.07 ± 0.01 g L-1 h-1 and a maximum average ethanol/acetate ratio of 1.41 ± 0.39 was observed under steady-state conditions. This confirmed that CO as the sole feedstock pushes the metabolism toward more reduced fermentation products. This effect was even more pronounced when 15 mM sodium acetate was added to the feed medium. An ethanol production rate of 0.23 ± 0.01 g L-1 h-1 was achieved, representing an increase of more than 240%. This increase was accompanied by an increase in cell density and selectivity toward ethanol, with a maximum average ethanol/acetate ratio of 92.96 ± 28.39. Oxygen contaminations voided this effect, although the cultures were still able to maintain a stable biomass concentration and ethanol production rate. These findings highlight the potential of CO-fermentation with acetate augmentation and the importance of preventing oxygen contaminations.